Well if you think you are smart enough, try this mind tricks. I bet they will blow your mind































It was the internal reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev, the last Soviet leader, that contributed to the demise of the Soviet Union.

On March 11, 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev was elected General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. At 54, he was the youngest member of the ruling Politburo that voted him into power

Former National Security Adviser, General Brent Scowcroft, said the Soviet Union previously had a succession of elderly leaders.

"So Gorbachev, I think, was brought in to stimulate the system. And exactly how, we didn’t know. And I’m not sure he did,” said Scowcroft.

For the next six years, Gorbachev embarked on a series of domestic reforms that radically changed the Soviet Union.

Former U.S. Ambassador to Moscow Thomas Pickering said, "What he attempted to do is, he analyzed where Russia was going and attempted to ride a horse - instead, he was on the back of a bucking elephant.”

Gorbachev’s reforms touched all segments of society. It included freeing press restrictions and releasing political prisoners and dissidents from jail and internal exile.


Gorbachev's Domestic Reforms Led to End of Soviet Union
Gorbachev's Domestic Reforms Led to End of Soviet Union

“He was not a democrat, but he was trying to get more efficiency out of the system and reduce the extent of coercion and oppression,” said Scowcroft.

One institution Gorbachev failed to reform, however, was the Soviet Communist Party. And it is within its ranks, along with the leadership of the military and the KGB, that hardliners attempted a coup against Gorbachev in August 1991.

But the coup failed.

“It was a pretty inept coup attempt. It was not carefully planned, not carefully carried out,” said Scowcroft.

Pickering agrees, saying “It had bankrupt leadership. It was in some ways vodka-soaked, elderly, old think."

The Soviet Union collapsed four months after the failed coup attempt. And, said Scowcroft, that allowed Boris Yeltsin, Gorbachev’s nemesis, to take Gorbachev head on.

Gorbachev's Domestic Reforms Led to End of Soviet Union
Gorbachev's Domestic Reforms Led to End of Soviet Union

“Now how do you eliminate Gorbachev? You pull the Soviet Union right from under him. And I think the end of the Soviet Union, the technical end of it, was in large part because then Gorbachev had no job,” said Scowcroft.

Many experts say Gorbachev unleashed forces he ultimately couldn’t contain - forces that inevitably led to the demise of the Soviet Union on December 25, 1991, when Gorbachev resigned as Soviet president.





On the night of November 9, 1989, the Berlin Wall--the most potent symbol of the Cold War division of Europe--came down. Earlier that day, the communist authorities of the German Democratic Republic had announced the removal of travel restrictions to democratic West Berlin. Thousands of East Germans streamed into the West, and in the course of the night, celebrants on both sides of the wall began to tear it down.
The collapse of the Berlin Wall was the culminating point of the revolutionary changes sweeping east central Europe in 1989. Throughout the Soviet bloc, reformers assumed power and ended more than 40 years of dictatorial communist rule. The reform movement that ended communism in east central Europe began in Poland. Solidarity, an anti-communist trade union and social movement, had forced Poland's communist government to recognize it in 1980 through a wave of strikes that gained international attention. In 1981, Poland's communist authorities, under pressure from Moscow, declared martial law, arrested Solidarity's leaders, and banned the democratic trade union. The ban did not bring an end to Solidarity. The movement simply went underground, and the rebellious Poles organized their own civil society, separate from the communist government and its edicts.
In 1985, the assumption of power in the Soviet Union by a reformer, Mikhail Gorbachev, paved the way for political and economic reforms in east central Europe. Gorbachev abandoned the "Brezhnev Doctrine"--the Soviet Union's policy of intervening with military force, if necessary, to preserve communist rule in the region. Instead, he encouraged the local communist leaders to seek new ways of gaining popular support for their rule. In Hungary, the communist government initiated reforms in 1989 that led to the sanctioning of a multiparty system and competitive elections. In Poland, the communists entered into round-table talks with a reinvigorated Solidarity. As a result, Poland held its first competitive elections since before World War II, and in 1989, Solidarity formed the first noncommunist government within the Soviet bloc since 1948. Inspired by their neighbors' reforms, east Germans took to the streets in the summer and fall of 1989 to call for reforms, including freedom to visit West Berlin and West Germany. Moscow's refusal to use military force to buoy the regime of East German leader Erich Honecker led to his replacement and the initiation of political reforms, leading up to the fateful decision to open the border crossings on the night of November 9, 1989.
In the wake of the collapse of the Berlin Wall, Czechs and Slovaks took to the streets to demand political reforms in Czechoslovakia. Leading the demonstrations in Prague was dissident playwright Vaclav Havel, co-founder of the reform group Charter 77. The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia quietly and peacefully transferred rule to Havel and the Czechoslovak reformers in what was later dubbed the "Velvet Revolution." In Romania, the communist regime of hardliner Nicolae Ceausescu was overthrown by popular protest and force of arms in December 1989. Soon, the communist parties of Bulgaria and Albania also ceded power.
The revolutions of 1989 marked the death knell of communism in Europe. As a result, not only was Germany reunified in 1990, but soon, revolution spread to the Soviet Union itself. After surviving a hard-line coup attempt in 1991, Gorbachev was forced to cede power in Russia to Boris Yeltsin, who oversaw the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

The collapse of communism in east central Europe and the Soviet Union marked the end of the Cold War. The U.S. long-term policy of containing Soviet expansion while encouraging democratic reform in central and eastern Europe through scientific and cultural exchanges, information policy (e.g., Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty), and the U.S. own example, provided invaluable support to the peoples of east central Europe in their struggle for freedom.
Road to Democracy (1990-1994)

1990

On the 2nd February 1990 president of South Africa F.W. De Klerk opened parliament with a speech that changed the course for South Africa’s future.  This was the start of FW De Klerk dismantling the Apartheid regime which had previously ruled over South Africa.  Two of the key factors that De Klerk had brought up were:

·         Many previously banned political parties such as the ANC and PAC to be unbanned.

·         All political prisoners to be released from prisons such as Robben Island (Including Nelson Mandela).

·         FW De Klerk’s willingness to work with all political groups to create a new democratic constitution for South Africa.

Reasons for FW De Klerk’s Change

·         The National Party wanted to control the change and dismantle Apartheid so that they could keep some power in doing so.

·         The National Party believed that the ANC would be politically weak after being banned for the past 30 years.

·         Sanctions and disinvestments in South Africa had a great negative effect on South Africa’s economy.

·         The resistance protests against Apartheid in the 1980’s showed that the Apartheid government could only hold of these protests indefinitely.



Sebokeng Massacre
Negotiations for reform soon begin between the ANC and the NP however these negotiations would be put on a halt due to on-going violence in South Africa such as the Sebokeng Massacre.  The ANC realised that a 3rd force were instigating and causing violence.  IFP hostel dwellers were intent on attacking ANC members in Sebokeng so therefore the ANC notified the minister of law and order for security forces to protect them.  However under police escort IFP members went on to murder 30 ANC supporters.

3rd Force-  An unknown group of right wing extremists who provoked attacks on the ANC in order to disrupt the negotiations to conserve South Africa and avoid reform.



Groote Schuur Minute

After the violence period had ended the negotiations had continued.  Government officials (NP) and ANC officials met at Groote Schuur in Cape Town in order to discuss and negotiate the way forward.  The highlight of this negotiation was the end of dominant white rule by means of:

·         Releasing all remaining political prisoners.

·         Granting immunity to prosecuted political offenders.

·         To bring back political offenders in exile.

Pretoria Minute

Due to the success of the Groote Schuur Minute the negotiations continued with the Pretoria Minute which was the next negotiation conference held once again between NP and ANC officials except this time in Pretoria.  The main point of discussion was the ANC’s announcement to suspend all armed action struggles (For the MK to stop with all attacks).

MK (Umkhonto we Sizwe)- The ANC’s armed wing or army which had been used during Apartheid as a form of violent protest by actions such as setting off bombs in public areas. After the Pretoria Minute the NP government ended the State of Emergency in South Africa except in Natal due to the on-going violence. 

1991 CODESA 1

After the success of the negotiations between the ANC and NP it was agreed that all factors rom all political parties should now be included in the negotiation process, thus CODESA 1 was held at the World Trade Centre in Kempton Park, Johannesburg.
·         19 political organisations (Excluding Pac and IFP) took part in CODESA 1.  
·         The negotiations at CODESA were to discuss the formation of a multi-racial government for the New South Africa.  
·         The Declaration Of Intent was drawn up and signed by all political organisations present which was a commitment by all  members to a goal towards an equal and undivided South Africa. 
·         The last of the remaining Apartheid laws were dropped.  

1992 White Referendum
In early 1992 FW De Klerk ordered that a “whites only” referendum be held on the issue of reform and to see what the response by the white public was to reform.  The referendum came back with very positive results as 68% of white South Africans voted towards a political reform.  

CODESA 2
Due to the success of CODESA 1, a follow up known as CODESA 2 was held which was once again at the World Trade Centre in Kempton Park.  Although CODESA 1 was a huge success, CODESA 2 was a was not very successful as all the political organisations failed to meet a consensus over a majority rule or power sharing form of rule for the new government.  Political parties such as the ANC wanted majority rule whereas the NP wanted power sharing.  This discussion was also not helped by all the on-going violence in the townships such as the Boipatong Massacre and Bisho Stadium tragedy.

Majority Rule- A form of governance whereby the political party with the majority of the vote (Who wins the election) has all power and control over the governance of the country.
Power Sharing-A system of governance where dominant groups share power with minorities and allow them some autonomy (Power in the governance of the country).

Boipatong Massacre

On the 17th June 1992, township residents living in Boipatong were attacked by armed IFP supporters whereby roughly 40 people were killed and many more were injured.  








Bisho Stadium Tragedy
On the 7th September 1992 around 80000 ANC supporters lead by iconic ANC leaders such as Chris Hani gathered in Bisho in protest against the leader of the homeland, OupaGqozo.  However when marchers tried to break through the lines of the Ciskei Defense force’s lines, they opened fire on the marchers killing 28 and injuring many more.

Record of Understanding
The Record of Understanding was an agreement between Roelf Meyer of the NP and Cyril Ramaphosa of the ANC that the negotiation process had to continue despite all the violence taking place and the ‘third force elements’ in the country.
NP government members and ANC officials finally agreed on a 5 year term for government and political parties that gain over 5% in the election would be proportionally represented.  

1993 Chris Hani Assassination
On the 10th April 1993 Chris Hani had just returned from the corner café when he was gunned down by Janus Waluz on his driveway.  This incident jolted the entire right wing back into activity and placed them at the top of the political agenda.  Later both Janus Waluz and Clive Derby-Lewis were convicted of the crime and were sentenced.  This assassination formed a large amount of conflict in South Africa as Hani was a very popular ANC leader, however Nelson Mandela addressed the nation in order to avoid a civil war and keep the peace so that the negotiation process could continue.

AWB Attack World Trade Centre
On the 25 June 1993 members of the right wing AWB political party demonstrated outside the World Trade Centre in Kempton Park during a negotiation and later drove vehicles through the doors into the building.  This was all part of the AWB to disrupt the negotiation process as right wing conservatives.

1994

On the 27th April 1994 South Africa eventually reached its first democratic election whereby all citizens of the country could vote.  Over 19 million South Africa voted and later it was concluded that the ANC had won the election and Nelson Mandela would be the first democratic president of South Africa.
As a resistance movement, the ANC was predated by a number of black lumpenproletariat resistance movements, among them Umkosi Wezintaba, formed in South Africa between 1890 and 1920.[1]
The ANC was formed on 8 January 1912 by John Dube, Pixley ka Isaka Seme and Sol Plaatje along with chiefs, people's representatives, and church organizations, and other prominent individuals to bring all Africans together as one people to defend their rights and freedoms, the ANC from its inception represented both traditional and modern elements, from tribal chiefs to church and community bodies and educated black professionals, though women were only admitted as affiliate members from 1931 and as full members in 1943.
The formation of the ANC Youth League in 1944 by Anton Lembede heralded a new generation committed to building non-violent mass action against the legal underpinnings of the white minority's supremacy.
In 1946 the ANC allied with the South African Communist Party in assisting in the formation of the South African Mine Workers' Union. After the miners strike became a general strike, the ANC's President General Alfred Bitini Xuma along with delegates of the South African Indian Congress at the 1946 session of the United Nations General Assembly where the treatment of Indians in South Africa was raised by the Government of India. Together, they raised the issue of the police brutality against the miners strike and the wider struggle for equality in South Africa.[2] The ANC also worked with the Natal Indian Congress and Transvaal Indian Congress.

Opposition to Apartheid

The return of an Afrikaner-led National Party government by the overwhelmingly white electorate in 1948 signaled the advent of the policy of Apartheid. During the 1950s, non-whites were removed from electoral rolls, residence and mobility laws were tightened and political activities restricted.
The successful increase of awareness outside of South Africa achieved in the Indians' movement under the leadership of Gandhi inspired blacks in South Africa to resist the racism and inequality that they, and all other non-whites, were experiencing. The two racial groups began working together, forcing themselves to accept one another and bash their own personal prejudices against one another. This required effort: education supporting the other race and their achievements, and constantly reminding themselves that they needed one another to combat the oppression they were facing. They began collaborating, even jointly campaigning for their struggle to be managed by the United Nations (although in this time, western society was not practising equality for all people either).[3]
The ANC also found its role model in the initial movement by the Indian political parties. They realized that they would need a fervent leader, like Gandhi was for the Indians, who was, in the words of Nelson Mandela, "willing to violate the law and if necessary go to prison for their beliefs as Gandhi had". In 1949 the ANC saw a jump in their membership, which previously lingered around five-thousand, and began to establish a firm presence in South African society.[3]
In June 1952, the ANC joined with other anti-Apartheid organizations in a Defiance Campaign against the restriction of political, labour and residential rights, during which protesters deliberately violated oppressive laws, following the example of Mahatma Gandhi's passive resistance in KwaZulu-Natal and in India. The campaign was called off in April 1953 after new laws prohibiting protest meetings were passed.
In June 1955 the Congress of the People, organised by the ANC and Indian, Coloured and White organizations at Kliptown near Johannesburg, adopted the Freedom Charter, henceforth the fundamental document of the anti-Apartheid struggle with its demand for equal rights for all regardless of race. As opposition to the regime's policies continued, 156 leading members of the ANC and allied organisations were arrested in 1956; the resulting "Treason Trial" ended with their acquittal five years later.
The ANC first called for an academic boycott of South Africa in protest of its Apartheid policies in 1958 in Ghana. The call was repeated the following year in London.[4]
In 1959 a number of members broke away from the ANC because they objected to the ANC's reorientation from African nationalist policies. They formed the rival Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), led by Robert Sobukwe.

Protest and banning
The ANC planned a campaign against the Pass Laws, which required blacks to carry an identity card at all times to justify their presence in White areas, to begin on 31 March 1960. The PAC pre-empted the ANC by holding unarmed protests 10 days earlier, during which 69 protesters were killed and 180 injured by police fire in what became known as the Sharpeville massacre.
In the aftermath of the tragedy, both organisations were banned from political activity. International opposition to the regime increased throughout the 1950s and 1960s, fueled by the growing number of newly independent nations, the Anti-Apartheid Movement in Britain and the civil rights movement in the United States. In 1960, the leader of the ANC, Albert Luthuli, won the Nobel Peace Prize, a feat that would be repeated in 1993 by the next leader of the ANC, Nelson Mandela, and F.W. de Klerk jointly, for their actions in helping to negotiate peaceful transition after Mandela's release from prison, which was a great step towards better rights for blacks.

Violent political resistance
Following the Sharpeville massacre in 1960, the ANC leadership concluded that the methods of non-violence such as those utilised by Gandhi against the British Empire during their colonisation of India were not
suitable against the Apartheid system. A military wing was formed in 1961, called Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), meaning "Spear of the Nation", with Mandela as its first leader. MK operations during the 1960s primarily involved targeting and sabotaging government facilities. Mandela was arrested in 1962, convicted of sabotage in 1964 and sentenced to life imprisonment on Robben Island, along with Sisulu and other ANC leaders after the Rivonia Trial.
During the 1970s and 1980s the ANC leadership in exile under Oliver Tambo made the decision to target Apartheid government leadership, command and control, secret police, and military-industrial complex assets and personnel in decapitation strikes, targeted killings, and guerilla actions such as bomb explosions in facilities frequented by military and government personnel. A number of civilians were also killed in these attacks. Examples of these include the Amanzimtoti bombing,[5] the Sterland bomb in Pretoria,[6] the Wimpy bomb in Pretoria,[7] the Juicy Lucy bomb in Pretoria[6] and the Magoo's bar bombing in Durban.[8] ANC acts of sabotage aimed at government institutions included the bombing of the Johannesburg Magistrates Court, the attack on the Koeberg nuclear power station, the rocket attack on Voortrekkerhoogte in Pretoria, and the 1983 Church Street bombing in Pretoria, which killed 16 and wounded 130.
The ANC was classified as a terrorist [9] organisation by the South African government and by some Western countries including the United States of America and the United Kingdom. Nevertheless, the ANC had a London office from 1978 to 1994 at 28 Penton Street in Islington, north London, now marked with a plaque. [10]
During this period, the South African military engaged in a number of raids and bombings on ANC bases in Botswana, Mozambique, Lesotho and Swaziland. Dulcie September, a member of the ANC who was investigating the arms trade between France and South Africa was assassinated in Paris in 1988. In the ANC's training camps, the ANC faced allegations that dissident members faced torture, detention without trial and even execution in ANC prison camps.[11][12] In South Africa, the campaign to make the townships "ungovernable" led to kangaroo courts and mob executions of opponents and collaborators, often by necklacing.[13][14]
There was violence between the ANC and the Inkatha Freedom Party. For example between 1985 and 1989, 5,000 civilians were killed in fighting between the two parties.[15] Massacres of each other's supporters include the Shell House massacre and the Boipatong massacre.
As the years progressed, the African National Congreses attacks, coupled with international pressure and internal dissent, increased in South Africa. The ANC received financial and tactical support from the USSR, which orchestrated military involvement with surrogate Cuban forces through Angola. However, the fall of the USSR after 1991 brought an end to its funding of the ANC and also changed the attitude of some Western governments that had previously supported the Apartheid regime as an ally against communism. The South African government found itself under increasing internal and external pressure, and this, together with a more conciliatory tone from the ANC, resulted in a change in the political landscape. State President F.W. de Klerk unbanned the ANC and other banned organisations on 2 February 1990, and began peace talks for a negotiated settlement to end Apartheid.

multiracial elections--but do so in a landslide. In that election, the ANC, as the dominant partner in a tripartite alliance with the South African Communist Party and the Congress of South African Trade Unions, won a comprehensive victory, and Nelson Mandela was elected the first black President of South Africa.
In Kwa-Zulu Natal, the ANC maintained an uneasy coalition with the Inkatha Freedom Party after neither party won a majority in the 1994 and 1999 provincial elections.
In 2004 the party contested national elections in voluntary coalition with the New National Party (NNP), which it effectively absorbed following the NNP's dissolution in 2005.
After the 1994 and 1999 elections it ruled seven of the nine provinces, with Kwa-Zulu Natal under the IFP and the Western Cape Province under the NNP. As of 2004, it gained both the Western Cape and Kwa-Zulu Natal after a combination of the NNP's electoral base being eroded by the DA and a poor showing by the IFP.
Signs of strain
By 2001 the tripartite alliance between the ANC, COSATU and SACP began showing signs of strain as the ANC moved to more liberal economic policies than its alliance partners were comfortable with. The focus for dissent was the GEAR program, an initialism for "Growth, Employment and Redistribution."
In late 2004 this was again thrown into sharp relief by Zwelinzima Vavi of COSATU protesting the ANC's policy of "quiet diplomacy" towards the worsening conditions in Zimbabwe, as well as Black Economic Empowerment, which he complained benefits a favoured few in the black elite and not the masses.
As of 2005 the alliance was facing a crisis as Jacob Zuma, who was fired from his position as Deputy President of South Africa by Thabo Mbeki, faced corruption charges. Complicating the situation was the fact that Zuma remained Deputy President of the ANC, and maintained a strong following amongst many ANC supporters, and the ANC's alliance partners.[16] In October 2005, top officials in the National Intelligence Agency, who were Zuma supporters, were suspended for illegally spying on an Mbeki supporter, Saki Macozoma, amid allegations that ANC supporters were using their positions within organs of state to spy on, and discredit each other.[17] In December 2005, Zuma was charged with rape [18] and his position as Deputy President of the ANC was suspended.[19]
Jacob Zuma was acquitted of the rape charges, and was reinstated as Deputy President of the organisation. A battle for leadership of the ANC followed, culminating at the party's national conference in Polokwane (16–20 December 2007), where both Jacob Zuma and Thabo Mbeki were nominated for the position of president. On 18 December 2007, Jacob Zuma was elected President of the ANC at the ANC conference in Polokwane[20]
The ANC also faced (sometimes violent) protests in townships over perceived poor service delivery, as well as internal disputes, as local government elections approached in 2006.[21][22]
The ANC "WaBenzi" are now commonly considered to be more concerned with the spoils of power (such as BMWs, Whisky & Italian Clothes) than they are with furthering the development of the people.
Leaders of the ANC[edit]

Presidents of the ANC
1912 - 1917 John Langalibalele Dube (1871–1946)

1917 - 1924 Sefako Mapogo Makgatho (1861–1951)

1924 - 1927 Zacharias Richard Mahabane (1881–1970)

1927 - 1930 Josiah Tshangana Gumede (1870–1947)
1930 - 1936 Pixley ka Isaka Seme (1882–1951)
1937 - 1940 Zacharias Richard Mahabane (1881-1971)
1940 - 1949 Alfred Bitini Xuma (1890–1962)
1949 - 1952 James Sebe Moroka (1891-1985)
1952 - 1967 Albert John Lutuli (1898–1967)
1967 - 1991 Oliver Reginald Tambo (1917–1993)
1991 - 1997 Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (1918-2013)
1997 - 2007 Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki (1942-)
2007–present Jacob Gedleyihlekisa Zuma (1942-)
Deputy Presidents of the ANC
1952 - 1958 Nelson Mandela
1958 - 1985 Oliver Tambo
1985 - 1991 Nelson Mandela
1991 - 1994 Walter Sisulu
1994 - 1997 Thabo Mbeki
1997 - 2007 Jacob Zuma
2007 – 2012 Kgalema Motlanthe
2012 - incumbent Cyril Ramaphosa
Secretaries-General of the ANC
(1912–1915) Sol Plaatje
(1915–1917) R. V. Selope Thema
(1917–1919) Saul Msane
(1919–1923) H. L. Bud M'belle
(1923–1927) T. D. Mweli Skota
(1927–1930) E. J. Khaile
(1930–1936) Elijah Mdolomba
(1936–1949) James Arthur Calata
(1949–1955) Walter Sisulu
(1955–1958) Oliver Tambo
(1958–1969) Duma Nokwe
(1969–1991) Alfred Nzo
(1991–1997) Cyril Ramaphosa
(1997–2007) Kgalema Motlanthe

(2007–present) Gwede Mantashe
During the Cuban Missile Crisis, leaders of the U.S. and the Soviet Union engaged in a tense, 13-day political and military standoff in October 1962 over the installation of nuclear-armed Soviet missiles on Cuba, just 90 miles from U.S. shores. In a TV address on October 22, 1962, President John Kennedy (1917-63) notified Americans about the presence of the missiles, explained his decision to enact a naval blockade around Cuba and made it clear the U.S. was prepared to use military force if necessary to neutralize this perceived threat to national security. Following this news, many people feared the world was on the brink of nuclear war. However, disaster was avoided when the U.S. agreed to Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev's (1894-1971) offer to remove the Cuban missiles in exchange for the U.S. promising not to invade Cuba. Kennedy also secretly agreed to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey.

Discovering the Missiles
After seizing power in the Caribbean island nation of Cuba in 1959, leftist revolutionary leader Fidel Castro (1926-) aligned himself with the Soviet Union. Under Castro, Cuba grew dependent on the Soviets for military and economic aid. During this time, the U.S. and the Soviets (and their respective allies) were engaged in the Cold War (1945-91), an ongoing series of largely political and economic clashes.

The two superpowers plunged into one of their biggest Cold War confrontations after the pilot of an American U-2 spy plane making a high-altitude pass over Cuba on October 14, 1962, photographed a Soviet SS-4 medium-range ballistic missile being assembled for installation.

President Kennedy was briefed about the situation on October 16, and he immediately called together a group of advisors and officials known as the executive committee, or ExCom. For nearly the next two weeks, the president and his team wrestled with a diplomatic crisis of epic proportions, as did their counterparts in the Soviet Union.

A New Threat to the U.S.
For the American officials, the urgency of the situation stemmed from the fact that the nuclear-armed Cuban missiles were being installed so close to the U.S. mainland--just 90 miles south of Florida. From that launch point, they were capable of quickly reaching targets in the eastern U.S. If allowed to become operational, the missiles would fundamentally alter the complexion of the nuclear rivalry between the U.S. and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which up to that point had been dominated by the Americans.

Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev had gambled on sending the missiles to Cuba with the specific goal of increasing his nation's nuclear strike capability. The Soviets had long felt uneasy about the number of nuclear weapons that were targeted at them from sites in Western Europe and Turkey, and they saw the deployment of missiles in Cuba as a way to level the playing field. Another key factor in the Soviet missile scheme was the hostile relationship between the U.S. and Cuba. The Kennedy administration had already launched one attack on the island--the failed Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961--and Castro and Khrushchev saw the missiles as a means of deterring further U.S. aggression.


Weighing the Options
From the outset of the crisis, Kennedy and ExCom determined that the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba was unacceptable. The challenge facing them was to orchestrate their removal without initiating a wider conflict--and possibly a nuclear war. In deliberations that stretched on for nearly a week, they came up with a variety of options, including a bombing attack on the missile sites and a full-scale invasion of Cuba. But Kennedy ultimately decided on a more measured approach. First, he would employ the U.S. Navy to establish a blockade, or quarantine, of the island to prevent the Soviets from delivering additional missiles and military equipment. Second, he would deliver an ultimatum that the existing missiles be removed.

In a television broadcast on October 22, 1962, the president notified Americans about the presence of the missiles, explained his decision to enact the blockade and made it clear that the U.S. was prepared to use military force if necessary to neutralize this perceived threat to national security. Following this public declaration, people around the globe nervously waited for the Soviet response. Some Americans, fearing their country was on the brink of nuclear war, hoarded food and gas.

Showdown at Sea
A crucial moment in the unfolding crisis arrived on October 24, when Soviet ships bound for Cuba neared the line of U.S. vessels enforcing the blockade. An attempt by the Soviets to breach the blockade would likely have sparked a military confrontation that could have quickly escalated to a nuclear exchange. But the Soviet ships stopped short of the blockade.

Although the events at sea offered a positive sign that war could be averted, they did nothing to address the problem of the missiles already in Cuba. The tense standoff between the superpowers continued through the week, and on October 27, an American reconnaissance plane was shot down over Cuba, and a U.S. invasion force was readied in Florida. (The 35-year-old pilot of the downed plane, Major Rudolf Anderson, is considered the sole U.S. combat casualty of the Cuban missile crisis.) "I thought it was the last Saturday I would ever see," recalled U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara (1916-2009), as quoted by Martin Walker in "The Cold War." A similar sense of doom was felt by other key players on both sides.

A Deal Ends the Standoff
Despite the enormous tension, Soviet and American leaders found a way out of the impasse. During the crisis, the Americans and Soviets had exchanged letters and other communications, and on October 26, Khrushchev sent a message to Kennedy in which he offered to remove the Cuban missiles in exchange for a promise by U.S. leaders not to invade Cuba. The following day, the Soviet leader sent a letter proposing that the USSR would dismantle its missiles in Cuba if the Americans removed their missile installations in Turkey.

Officially, the Kennedy administration decided to accept the terms of the first message and ignore the second Khrushchev letter entirely. Privately, however, American officials also agreed to withdraw their nation's missiles from Turkey. U.S. Attorney General Robert Kennedy (1925-68) personally delivered the message to the Soviet ambassador in Washington, and on October 28, the crisis drew to a close.

Both the Americans and Soviets were sobered by the Cuban Missile Crisis. The following year, a direct "hot line" communication link was installed between Washington and Moscow to help defuse similar situations, and the superpowers signed two treaties related to nuclear weapons. The Cold War was far from over, though. In fact, another legacy of the crisis was that it convinced the Soviets to increase their investment in an arsenal of intercontinental ballistic missiles capable of reaching the U.S. from Soviet territory.